A CONCISE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF BUDDHISM

John Powers

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'ja' lus (‘rainbow body’)

Tibetan term for the final state of attainment in some traditions of Tibetan Buddhism, in which a fully awakened master dissolves the physical body into multicolored light and re-emerges in a new body composed of subtle energy, rather than coarse matter.

'Jam dbyangs mkhyen brtse chos kyi blo gros (Jamyang Khyentse Chogi Lodro, 1896-1969)

One of the leading masters of the Ris med (Rime) movement in eastern Tibet, recognized as the activity reincarnation of 'Jam dbyangs mkhyen brtse dbang po (Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo, 1820-1892). Many of the leading Tibetan lamas of the twentieth century were his students, including Dingo Khyentse Rinpoche (Dil mgo mkhyen brtse Rin po che), Kalu Rinpoche (Ka lu Rin po che), and Sogyal Rinpoche (bSod nams rgyal mtshan Rin po che).

'Jam mgon kong sprul blo gros mtha' yas (Jamgon Kongtrul Lodro Taye, 1811-1899)

One of the most influential figures of nineteenth-century Tibetan Buddhism, who was instrumental in establishing the ‘Non-Sectarian’ (Ris med) movement, which sought to overcome the paralyzing sectarianism that pervaded Tibetan Buddhism at the time. He was born into a Bon po family, and after taking monastic ordination he studied with, and received initiations from, a wide variety of teachers from different traditions. He witnessed first hand the negative effects of the prevailing sectarianism of the time and sought to combat it by emphasizing the harmony of different Buddhist traditions. He wrote a number of important works, including his Encyclopedia of All Knowledge (Shes bya kun khyab) and an eclectic collection of tantric texts entitled Treasury of Secret Mantra (gDams ngag mdzod). (See also Bon.)

Jambudvipa (Pali Jambudipa; Tib. Dzam bu'i gling)

The southernmost of the four great land masses (Skt. catur-dvipa) of traditional Buddhist cosmology. It is said to be named after the Jambu tree that grows there. It measures 2,000 yojanas on three sides, and its fourth side is only three-and-a-half yojanas long.

Japanese Buddhism

When Buddhism first entered Japan in the sixth century, it was a foreign religion that differed significantly from the unorganized indigenous cults and practices that would later develop into Shinto°. In the succeeding centuries, however, it gradually adapted to its new environment, and distinctively Japanese forms of Buddhism arose, which melded elements of Japanese culture with Buddhist traditions that were imported largely from China and Korea. According to the Nihonshoki, Buddhism was first imported to Japan in 552 from Paekche, a Korean kingdom that was at war with the neighboring state of Silla. The king of Paekche sent Buddhist statues and texts as gifts to enlist the military support of Japan, but did not send anyone who could explain their significance. Thus although this is traditionally viewed as the first introduction of Buddhism to Japan, it had little impact at the time.

The first recorded adoption of Buddhism in Japan was initiated by the Soga clan, which viewed the Buddha as a god (Jpn. kami) of the powerful culture of China. Some Sogas wanted to adopt Buddhism as a clan cult in hopes of gaining access to the magical powers that were widely thought to belong to Buddhist monks and artefacts. When the Sogas later managed to defeat their main rivals, they apparently credited the Buddha with playing a role in their success and began to propagate Buddhism. It is clear from records of the time, however, that they had little or no knowledge of Buddhist philosophy and practice and conceived of it in terms of indigenous religious paradigms.

During the seventh century Buddhism began to attract converts, and by 624 there were reportedly 816 monks and 569 nuns in Japan. In this early period, Buddhism was mainly viewed as a means to cure illness and harness magical power. Ordinations were thought to generate merit, and this was believed to result in worldly benefits, such as health, protection of the country, etc. As was true of other countries in which Buddhism became established, state patronage played a crucial role in propagating the new religion. The first Japanese ruler to accept Buddhism was Yomei (r. 585-598). His son Shotoku (574-622) was by all accounts an enthusiastic supporter of Buddhism, who wrote a constitution based on Buddhist and Confucian principles and built numerous temples. He also sponsored monks and nuns to travel to China for study, and he conceived of Buddhism as a national religion (before this it had mainly been a clan cult).

After Shotoku's death, the imperial capital moved to Nara, and several emperors increased royal patronage of Buddhism. In 741 the emperor Shomu (r. 724-749) issued a decree mandating that a network of temples (kokubunji) be built to protect the country (chingo kokka), and in each province at least one was constructed to house twenty or more monks. One of their primary duties was chanting the Sutra of Golden Light (Skt. Suvarnôa-prabhasa-sutra; Jpn. Konkomyo-kyo), which promises that the four celestial kings (Skt. deva-raja; Jpn. shitenno) will protect any ruler who sponsors chanting of the text. During the Nara period (710-784), interest in Buddhism increased among the intelligentsia, and six schools developed, all of which were imported from China: (1) Ritsu (Skt. Vinaya; Chin. Lu); (2) Kegon (Chin. Hua-yen); (3) Kusha (Chin. Chu-she); (4) Hosso (Chin. Fa-hsiang); (5) Jojitsu (Skt. Satyasiddhi; Chin. Ch'eng-shih); and (6) Sanron (Chin. San-lun). Three of these still exist today: Hosso, which has its headquarters at Kofukuji and Yakushiji; Ritsu, whose main temple is Toshodaiji; and Kegon, which is based at Todaiji. The three are mainly confined to these temples, however, and are only minor traditions with little lay support. During the Nara period, interest in Buddhism was mainly confined to the aristocracy, but there were some Buddhists who began to proselytize among the masses. Among these were the hijiri, monks who were often self-ordained and who generally kept apart from the major orders. The most famous of these was Gyogi (668-749), who had a background in civil engineering that he put to use in projects for rural peasants.

The establishment of a new capital in Heiankyo (modern day Kyoto) in 794 marked the beginning of the Heian period (794-1185), during which imperial power waned as feudal chieftains gained greater autonomy. At the same time, many Buddhist orders became large landholders, which often allied themselves with local hegemons. During this period, some new schools were imported from China, most notably Shingon, founded by Kukai (774-835), and Tendai, founded by Saicho (767-822). One of the most significant developments of this time was a move toward syncretism. Buddhist traditions borrowed rituals and practices from each other, and Buddhism as a whole increasingly incorporated native Shinto deities and practices. During this period eclectic temples called jinguji were constructed, in which Buddhist rituals were performed in what were otherwise Shinto shrines. At the same time, Buddhists increasingly identified figures in the Buddhist pantheon (buddhas and bodhisattvas) with indigenous kami.

The late Heian period was characterized by a growing sense of pessimism, probably due in part to the increasingly unstable political situation. This continued into the Kamakura period (1185-1333), during which military leaders seized power from the aristocracy and developed a feudal system that lasted until 1868. During this time it was widely believed that the world had entered the ‘age of final dharma’ (Jpn. mappo) that was foretold in some Indian Buddhist texts. According to this idea, the time of Sakyamuni Buddha was the ‘true dharma age,’ during which people had superior capacities, enabling them to practice effectively and attain liberation. During the next period, the ‘counterfeit dharma age,’ practice would decline, and during mappo there would be continued degeneration until Buddhism disappeared altogether. Estimates regarding the timing of the three periods varied widely, but during the Kamakura period it was generally accepted that the third age had begun, and the schools that arose in Japan at that time developed strategies for coping with decline. Despite the political uncertainty, however, this was generally a time of growth for Buddhism, and three new schools appeared: Zen, Jodo Shu (Pure Land), and Nichiren-shu. Zen was first brought to Japan by Eisai Zenji (1141-1215), who traveled to China in 1168 and 1187 and subsequently introduced the Rinzai (Chin. Lin-chi) lineage. The Soto (Chin. Ts'ao-tung) tradition was first propagated in Japan by Dogen Zenji (1200-1253), who traveled to China in 1223. Zen's general response to mappo was to emphasize the importance of intensive meditative practice, which was believed to be the only way to overcome the negative influences of the age. By contrast, both Jodo Shu and Nichiren-shu contended that the beings of mappo are too depraved and weak-willed to have any hope of securing salvation through their own efforts, and so they should rely on others to save them. For Jodo Shu, this involves placing one's faith in Amida (Skt. Amitabha) Buddha, while Nichiren taught his followers to rely solely on the Lotus Sutra (Skt. Saddharma-pundarika-sutra; Jpn. Myoho-renge-kyo).

The Kamakura period is often viewed as the apogee of the development of Buddhism in Japan, since by its end all of the major classical Buddhist traditions had been established. The Tokugawa period (1600-1867) was a time of unprecedented power for Buddhism in Japan, but its success at the political level led to stagnation and apathy. When the warlord Tokugawa Ieyasu (1542-1616) seized power in 1600, he initiated a violent persecution of Christianity, which had made significant numbers of converts in Japan. Viewing this as the thin end of the wedge of Western colonialism, he issued an edict requiring all Japanese to become officially affiliated with a Buddhist temple, and people were issued certificates (tera-uke) to this effect. Buddhist temples became part of the government bureaucracy and were required to keep records of births and deaths and also to aid the government's efforts to eradicate Christianity. This system, called danka-seido, was abolished in the Meiji period (1868-1912, during which Shinto became the state religion), but the bonds forged by the old system continue to maintain a sense of connection between many Japanese and their family temples.

During the Tokugawa period, the number of Buddhist temples increased, as did the revenues from parishioners who were eager to avoid being suspected of harboring Christian sympathies. But this very success led to a situation in which the priesthood became lazy and corrupt, since there was no need for them to actively work to interest people in Buddhism. The Meiji restoration revived the old imperial cult, which identified the emperor as a living kami, and a nationalistic form of Shinto became the state ideology. At the same time, Buddhism was suppressed, and because its public support had eroded due to its ossification and corruption, there was a general decline, which persisted through World War II. Since the post-war Restoration period, Japan has made freedom of religion a part of the legal system, but the traditional schools of Buddhism have generated little enthusiasm among the masses of Japanese. For most Japanese today, institutional Buddhism is primarily associated with the performance of rituals for the dead, and many Japanese only come into contact with Buddhism when someone in the family dies and they go to the ancestral temple for the mortuary rites. A nationwide survey conducted by the Soto school found that even among Japanese who identify themselves as Buddhists, only ten percent could even name their sect's main temple or founder. Government surveys consistently reveal that only about thirty percent of the population embraces any religious belief, while sixty-five percent are indifferent to religion. What vitality there is in Japanese religions is mainly found in the so-called ‘New Religions’ (shin-shukyo, such as Agonshu and Soka Gakkai), which generally have charismatic founders and make a direct emotional appeal to their followers. Aside from the fervor of the ‘New Religions,’ however, there is little interest in religion among most Japanese. Although many Japanese consider themselves to be affiliated with a Buddhist sect, this often means little in terms of actual belief or practice.

Jataka(Pali Jataka; Tib. sKyes rabs; ‘Birth Stories’)

Pali term for a collection of 547 stories of the previous lives of Sakyamuni Buddha, which focus on how he cultivated the various good qualities that characterize a buddha, such as generosity, morality, wisdom, etc. These are part of the Theravada canon and are contained in the Khuddaka nikaya of the Sutta-pitaka (Sutra-pitaka). They are very popular in Buddhist countries because they are mostly easily understood stories extolling key Buddhist virtues. Each Jataka concludes with a verse indicating the Buddhist moral of the story (technically speaking, the verses are the only part of the stories that are considered canonical).

jenang

See anujna.

Jetavana (1)

Indian Buddhist monastery located at Sravasti. The site was donated by Anathapindika, a wealthy lay follower of the Buddha. The site was selected by Sariputra, who spent the last twenty-five rainy season retreats of his life there. It was also the Buddha's favorite retreat, and he spent nineteen rainy season retreats at Jetavana.

Jetavana (2)

A monastery in Sri Lanka built by king Mahasena (r. 334-362) for Mahayana monks. It maintained a separate nikaya (2) until the twelfth century, when king Parakramabahu I ordered it to amalgamate with the Mahavihara nikaya

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'Jigs med gling pa (Jikme Lingpa, 1730-1798)

Famed visionary and discoverer (gter ston) of ‘hidden treasures’ (gter ma), most importantly the Heart Sphere of the Great Expanse (kLong chen snying thig), which has been widely influential in the rNying ma pa (Nyingmapa) school of Tibetan Buddhism.

Jina (Pali Jina; Tib. rGyal ba; ‘Conqueror’)

One of the most common epithets of the Buddha, which indicates that he has triumphed over the factors that bind ordinary beings to continued rebirth, such as anger, desire, and obscuration.

Jiriki (Chin. t'zu-li; ‘own-power’)

Japanese term referring to Buddhist practices that rely on one's own effort. This is generally contrasted with tariki (‘other-power’), which encompasses approaches in which one relies on a buddha's help for salvation. The former type includes Zen training in which liberation is attained through intense meditative practice. The latter type includes Pure Land (Chin. Ch'ing-t'u; Jpn. Jodo Shinshu) traditions, in which one prays to Amitabha Buddha to be reborn in his ‘Pure Land’ of Sukhavati.

Jizo

See Ksitigarbha.

Jnana (Pali nana; Tib. ye shes; ‘knowledge’)

In general, this term refers to knowledge. It is derived from the Sanskrit root jna, ‘to know.’ In Mahayana, it is also the tenth in the tenfold list of ‘perfections’ (paramita) that a bodhisattva cultivates on the path to buddhahood. It is developed on the tenth ‘bodhisattva level’ (bhumi) and is said to refer to the expansive wisdom that is perfected with the attainment of buddhahood.

Jnanagarbha (Tib. Ye shes snying po, fl. ca. eighth century; ‘Knowledge Womb’)

Influential Madhyamaka philosopher belonging to the tradition of Bhavya, who is said by the Tibetan historian Sum pa mkhan po to have been the teacher of Santaraksita. He is commonly classified by Tibetan doxographers as a Svatantrika-madhyamika, and he is the author of several important works, including Differentiation of the Two Truths (Satya-dvaya-vibhanga).

Jo nang pa (Jonangpa)

An order of Tibetan Buddhism that produced a number of influential scholars, but was suppressed by the fifth Dalai Lama, Ngag dbang blo bzang rgya mtsho (Ngawang Losang Gyatso, 1617-1682) in the seventeenth century. Its most notable figure was Shes rab rgyal mtshan of Dol po (Dolpopa Sherap Gyeltsen, 1296-1361), and the lineage also included 'Ba ra ba rGyal mtshan dpal bzang (Barawa Gyeltsen Belsang, 1310-1391), Thang stong rgyal po (Tangdong Gyelpo, 1385-1464), and Taranatha (1575-1634). It was best known for its positive interpretation of the doctrine of tathagata-garbha (Tib. de bzhin gshegs pa'i snying po), which conceived of it as a positive essence that is actualized through meditative practice. This view is commonly referred to as ‘other-emptiness’ (Tib. gzhan stong), and it is said to be based on the Kalacakra-tantra. The Dalai Lama considered this to be a thinly disguised version of the brahmanical notion of an unchanging, primordially undefiled ‘self’ (Skt. atman), and he issued a decree that Jo nang pa monasteries be destroyed or forced to convert to the dGe lugs pa (Gelukpa) order, and their books burned. Some contemporary scholars suspect that the reasons behind the suppression had as much to do with politics as doctrine, since the Jo nang pas had been aligned with the Kar ma bKa' brgyud pa (Karma Kagyupa) hierarchs, who had fought against (and lost to) the Dalai Lama for political control of Tibet. Despite this persecution, many of the order's works survived, and the gzhan stong teachings remain influential in Tibetan Buddhism, particularly in the Ris med (Rime, ‘Non-Sectarian’) movement.

Jodo

See Ch'ing-t'u.

Jodo Shinshu (‘True Pure Land School’)

The Japanese tradition founded by Shinran (1173-1262) and later reorganized by Rennyo (1414-1499). Shinran claimed to be following the teachings of Honen (1133-1212) and, like Honen, he taught his followers to rely exclusively on the saving power of Amitabha Buddha (Jpn. Amida Butsu). The tradition is based on the Sukhavati-vyuha, and particularly on the forty-eight vows taken by Amitabha in a past life. The most important of these for Jodo shinshu is the eighteenth vow, in which Amitabha promised that anyone who calls on him with faith ten times (or wishes rebirth in his Pure Land ten times) will surely be reborn there. Once in the Pure Land, one is assured of attaining buddhahood in that lifetime. Shinran taught that this practice is the only one appropriate to the present ‘final dharma age’ (Jpn. mappo) and that one should dedicate oneself to it wholeheartedly. The central practice is chanting the nembutsu, ‘Namo Amida Butsu’ (‘Praise to Amitabha Buddha’), but this is not conceived as a way of making merit; rather, one chants the nembutsu as an act of gratitude to Amitabha because one is already assured of being saved. Shinran emphasized that Amitabha's power is so great that he can save even the most depraved sinner; all that is required is that one have a single moment of ‘believing mind’ (shinjin), after which one is assured of being reborn in the Pure Land. Because one relies on Amitabha and not on one's own effort, this practice is referred to in Japanese as tariki (‘other-power’), in contrast to traditions like Zen, which assert that one must attain salvation through one's own power (jiriki). Shinran is generally credited with establishing a married priesthood in Japan, and today there is no monastic element in Jodo Shinshu. Its temples are run by lay priests, and the priesthood is hereditary. The tradition has two main divisions: Otani and Honganji, both of which have their main centers in Kyoto.

Jodo Shu (Chin. Ch'ing-t'u-tsung; Kor. Choõngt'o-chong; Viet. ãaôo Trang; ‘Pure Land School’)

Japanese tradition founded by Honen (1133-1212). It was first brought to Japan by Ennin (794-864), who studied in China. Honen developed it into a distinctive school, emphasizing the centrality of the nembutsu, ‘Namo Amida Butsu’ (‘Praise to Amitabha Buddha’). Though originally trained in the scholastic Tendai tradition, Honen later encountered the writings of Shan-tao and Genshin and subsequently decided that the ‘difficult path’ of traditional Buddhism - involving study and meditative practice in order to attain liberation - was not feasible for the people of the ‘final dharma age’ (Jpn. mappo). He taught that in the present degenerate age the only hope for salvation lies in total reliance on the saving power of Amitabha. This he termed the ‘easy path,’ because it is open to all, and salvation is assured for those who recite the nembutsu with sincere faith. The doctrinal basis for his school is found in four Indian texts: the Larger and Smaller Sukhavati-vyuha-sutra, the Amitayur-dhyana-sutra, and the Amitabha-sutra.

Jojitsu (Skt. Satyasiddhi; Chin. Ch'eng-shih; ‘Establishment of Truth’)

A scholastic tradition brought to Japan by the Korean monk Ekwan in 625. The doctrines of the school are based on the Establishment of Truth (Satyasiddhi) by the fourth-century Indian Buddhist scholar Harivarman. Although it was a distinct school in China, in Japan it was considered to be a part of the Sanron (Chin. San-lun) tradition. During the Nara period (710-784), it became one of the six main schools of Japanese Buddhism (the others were Kusha, Hosso, Sanron, Ritsu, and Kegon)

Joshu Jushin

See Chao-chou Ts'ung-shen.

Journal of Buddhist Ethics

Electronic journal founded by Charles Prebish and Damien Keown, first published in 1994. It has become one of the most influential periodicals in the field of Buddhist Studies. Its focus is on contemporary issues, such as human rights, gender issues, the environment, etc.

Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies

The premier academic journal for Buddhist Studies. It is published by the International Association of Buddhist Studies, an organization of academic buddhologists which was founded in 1976.

jugyu-no-zu (‘ten ox-herding pictures’)

One of the most widespread sets of images of the Ch'an (Jpn. Zen; Kor. Son) tradition. They depict the levels of increasing realization of a student of Ch'an. The most famous set comes from the Chinese master K'uo-an Chih-yuan (Jpn. Kakuan Shien, fl. twelfth century): (1) looking for the ox; (2) spotting its tracks; (3) first sight of the ox; (4) catching the ox; (5) taming the ox; (6) riding the ox; (7) leaving the ox behind; (8) leaving one's self behind; (9) returning to the source; and (10) entering the marketplace. In some depictions, the ox is black at the beginning, becomes gradually whiter, and then becomes pure white. After this the ox disappears. The sequence symbolizes the student's gradual mastery of meditation practice, in which the mind is progressively brought under control and trained. Eventually the training is left behind, and one is able to function in the world with a changed perspective.

Jukai (‘ten precepts’)

Japanese term for formal acceptance of the ten precepts for lay Buddhists: (1) not killing; (2) not stealing; (3) avoiding sexual misconduct; (4) not lying; (5) not selling or buying alcohol; (6) not gossiping about others' misdeeds; (7) not praising oneself and denigrating others; (8) avoiding miserliness with respect to the dharma; (9) avoiding aggression; and (10) not slandering. Adopting these is generally accompanied by formal declaration of one's faith in the ‘three jewels’ (Jpn. sambo; Skt. triratna): Buddha, dharma, and samgha.